2-1.Value of the Stone Fish Weirs

Lin Wen-zhen of the Penghu Marine Cultural Association believes that the stone fish weir remains relevant for three reasons – an economic lifeline in the early days, a nascent example of ecological engineering, and an illustration of community empowerment.

2-1-1. Economic Lifeline

Before the emergence of motor boats, Penghu residentshad to overcome the archipelago’s lack of natural resources by relying on fish weirs to make a living and support their families. At the time, fish weirs were treated like real estate and were just as valuable as farmland and houses. They could be borrowed, mortgaged, bought, or sold, and be used as bequests, dowries, or bargaining chips.

Statistics show that the fishery output via stone weirs accounted for 77% of Penghu’s total fishery output in 1950, and market demand for fish weirs lasted until the 1960s.

2-1-2. Ecological Engineering

As the construction of interlocked stone weirs required no artificial adhesives, their rough surface and holes became good habitat for algae and shellfish such as oysters and barnacles, which in turn helped to strengthen the structural integrity of the weirs. The weirs also served as incubators for fish larvae by offering a stable food supply and holes for refuge.

2-1-3. Community Empowerment

According to Penghu culture and history expert Hung Kuo-hsiung, the manpower-intensive construction of stone weirs required eight divisions of labor – selection of shareholders, selection of location, acquirement of materials, transportation of materials, construction of weir, supervision of construction, maintenance of weir, and workship of weir.

The eight tasks are shouldered by the co-owners of the weir, leading ownership to be closely related to either family clans, temples, villages, or neighborhoods. Each enclave formed an independent system for operating, inheriting, and managing stone weirs, which contribute to the uniqueness of Penghu’s culture.

2-2. Types of Stone Weirs

Stone fish weirs in Penghu vary in shape because of such factors as terrain, direction, and tide. There are three main types: curved weir, single-pool weir, and double-pool weir.

2-2-1. Curved Weir

An earlier name for the curved weir was “shallow weir” to highlight its lack of a pool area. Its elongated arch shape also gave rise to nicknames such as “dustpan weir” and “cage weir.” Curved weirs are usually constructed in regions of shallow water and high tide lines, and such characteristics are reflected in the term “high weir”used by people on Jibei Islet.

2-2-2. Single-pool Weir

Single-pool weirs are equipped with one pool and are usually constructed in deeper waters. Therefore, single-pool weirs are also known as “deep weirs.”

2-2-3. Double-pool Weir

Double-pool weirs, also known as “double-connected weirs,” are equipped with two pools. The double-pool weirs in Jibei, Niuxin Bay, and Cimei of Penghu vary in structure; some double pools are positioned one behind another, while other double pools are placed side by side.

Statistics show that curved weirs account for 49% of the total weirs in Penghu, followed by single-pool weirs at 32%, and double-pool weirs at 3%. The remaining 16% are uncategorized weirs that were damaged beyond recognition.

2-3. Fish Weir Statistics

• The number of stone weirs in Penghu slowly increased from 22 weirs during the rule of Emperor Kangxi to 78.5 weirs by the late Qing dynasty.
• In 1917, a survey by the Penghu Fishermen’s Association counted 314 weirs in the Penghu archipelago.
• In 1938, a total of 284 weirs registered for fishery rights.
• In 1950, only 149 weirs were licensed by the government following the retrocession of Taiwan.
• In 1957, a total of 192 weirs were registered in Penghu.

The drop in the number of stone weirs following the retrocession may have been caused by failure to comply with registration demands or the rise in motorboat usage, which subsequently changed Penghu’s way of fishing.

According to a reliable survey conducted by Penghu resident and cultural expert Hung Kuo-hsiung in 1999, there remains 558 weirs in Penghu. Moreover, 16 additional weirs were registered after the survey, bringing the total number of Penghu stone weirs to 574.

Associate professor Li Ming-ruof the Department of Tourism and Leisure at the National Penghu University of Science and Technology and his research team conducted another survey in certain parts of Penghu between 2005 and 2006. They discovered 13 more unregistered or newly constructed weirs, bringing the total number of Penghu weirs to 587.

Li led another field study in other parts of Penghu between 2008 and 2009, and counted at least 592 weirs. Li determined that the total number of fish weirs that were ever built in Penghu could be well beyond 600, including those that are no longer in existence.

The existing592weirs are scattered along the 320km coastline of Penghu, and are absent only near ports and deep waters. Penghu holds the world record for its sheer density of weirs, which validates its position as a potential World Heritage Site.

2-4. Fish Weir Catch

A rich variety of fishes are caught by stone fish weirs in Penghu, and research by local culture and history expert Hung Kuo-hsiung in 1999 identified the following marine species:

• Silver-stripe round herring(Spratelloides gracilis)
• Indian anchovy(Stolephorus indicus)
• Red-eye round herring(Etrumeus teres)
• Blacktip sardinella (Sardinella melanura)
• Chinese seerfish(Scomberomorus sinensis)
• Mackerel tuna (Euthynnus affinis)
• Greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili)
• Japanese horse mackerel (Decapterus maruadsi)
• Mottled spinefoot (Siganus fuscescens)
• Miiuy croaker (Miichthys miiuy)
• Orange-finned ponyfish (Leiognathus bindus)
• Mackerel scad (Decapterus macarellus)
• Threeline grunt (Parapristipoma trilineatum)
• Crescent bass (Terapon jarbua)
• Trumpeter perch (Pelates quadrilineatus)
• Flat needlefish (Ablennes hians)
• Black-barred halfbeak (Hemiramphus far)
• Common silver-biddy (Gerres oyena)
• Double-lined fusilier (Pterocaesio digramma)
• Largescale mullet (Liza macrolepis)Largehead hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus)
• Long-spine porcupinefish (Diodon holocanthus)
• Hardyhead silverside (Atherinomorus lacunosus)
• Striped eel catfish (Plotosus lineatus)Green snapper (Lethrinus nebulosus)
• Bigfin reef squid (Sepioteuthis lessoniana)
• Pharaoh cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis)
• Longfingrouper (Epinephelus quoyanus)
• Brassy chub (Kyphosus lembus)
• Pearl-spot chromis (Chromis notata)Scissortail sergeant (Abudefduf sexfasciatus)

Other catches found in the pools of Penghu’s stone fish weirs include moray eels of the Muraenidae family, whiptail stingrays of the Dasyatidae family, sharks of the Selachimorpha family, and sea turtles of the Chelonioidea family.

In earlier days, a well-constructed weir could catch hundreds – even thousands – of kilograms of fish per tidal cycle. Local elders recall the time when the haul was so abundant that the water could barely be seen because the entire pool was filled with flailing fishes. It was possible for weir owners to become rich overnight and build a western-style manor from the profit, they say.

Hung vouches for the veracity of such tales, noting that he’s seen a weir full of countless young silver herrings, and found about a dozen mackerel tunas swimming in another during his weir research.

2- 5. Fish Weir Distribution

A survey conducted during Japanese rule of Taiwan showed that Penghu consisted of 64 islands and islets; a latter 2004 survey updated the figures to include a total of 90 islands and islets spreading across a 60km-long and 40km-wide region. The surrounding waters grow shallower towards the northern end of the archipelago, hence the northern islets have wider intertidal zones and more fish weirs.

The Penghu Islands encompass one city and five townships. Paisha Township, which is located north of the archipelago on Jibei Islet, has the highest number of fish weirs. Jibei Islet is known as “the hometown of fish weirs” for its 92 weirs, according to a 2006 survey.

Ranked second is Xiyu Township in the west, followed by Huxi Township in the east and Magong City at the center of Penghu proper. Islets towards the south have the least number of fish weirs.
 

The northernmost fish weirs in Penghu are the three weirs in Mudouyu, whereas the southernmost one is the Twin Hearts Stone Weirin Cimei. Situated next to a rocky cliff that offers aerial vantage of the weir and the surrounding blue waters, the Twin Hearts Stone Weir is touted as “a cultural landscape of unparalleled beauty.” The Twin Hearts now serve as an iconic symbol of Penghu tourism and romance.

3-1. The Origins of Fish Weirs 
A fish weir, or a tidal weir, is an obstruction placed in tidal waters to trap fish. It is an ancient technique that has been widely used around the world. According to contemporary research, the earliest stone fish weirs were likely constructed during the Neolithic age. 

Fish weirs constructed with different materials and shapes are used in rivers and tidal flats throughout the world – their main function is to obstruct water and restrict the movement of fishes. Such structures are known as weirs along the northwest coastline of North America. Other regions use phrases such as fish traps, tidal traps, kraals, guides, leads, pounds, impoundments, fish fences, and fish ponds. 

Regions that are known to have used fish weirs include Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, mainland China, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Cambodia, India, Sri Lanka, the Pacific Islands, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Africa, the United States, and Canada. 

The vast distribution of fish weirs stands testamentto the wisdom of early human civilization. As such, this set of original skills and entrapment structure should be considered valuable cultural heritage and landscape. 

3-2. A Unique Way of Fishing
Materials used to construct fish weirs were usually based on locally available resources in three categories: plant materials, stone materials, and artificial materials. Penghu’s stone fish weirs are a more special form of fish weir construction because they are constructed by interlocking stones or coral reefs without using any man-made adhesives.

Stone fish weirs are usually built in an estuary or tidal flat, and similar stone traps were found in Japan and the Korean peninsula as well. Since the structure has to endure tempestuous winds, waves, and tides, stones are usually piled up to form a curved wall that is 1.5 to 2 meters high. The end of a weir usually curves into a spiral. 

The more complex fish weirs have one or two pools to gather fishes. More advanced techniques include creating weirs with entrances, ladders, dikes, wells, and narrow channels. Such techniques were developed to refine fishing. 

Areas where stone fish weirs are distributed and developed overlap with the Austronesian migration route. Because their fishing-gathering culture and the shape of their fish weirs are very similar, it is presumed that stone fish weirs are probably one of the common features of the Austronesian cultural group. However, more concrete evidence is needed to support this hypothesis. 

3-3. Conditions for the Development of Stone Weirs
Conditions required for the development of stone fish weirs include:

A.    Construction materials: Stones (including basalt, gravel, cobble) or coral reefs.
B.    Wide tidal range: Fishes can only be lured into the weir by a wide tidal range.
C.    Strong winds and waves: Bad weather and turbulent waves will drive more fishes to take shelter in the weir.
D.    Vast coral reef shelfs: Shallow coral reef shelfs allow fishes to stay in the tidal flat even at low tide, thereby increasing the chances of trapping fish by weir. In addition, the hard rock sediment of a coral reef provides a strong foundation for stone weirs that is less affected by tidal movements and sand erosion. 
E.    Abundant migratory fishes: Migratory fishes will be trapped in stone weirs once they swim into tidal flats to chase smaller fishes or eat algae. A large number of migratory fishes is a requirement for constructing stone fish weirs because sufficient economic incentives are provided. 
F.    Manpower: When mechanical power was not readily available, it required manpower to move stone materials to proper locations in line with the tide. It took years – or even decades – to complete the construction of a single fish weir, making manpower one of the necessary conditions for weir building.
G.    Management system: Since the construction of a stone weir required collective effort and fish harvests depended on the seasonal change of tides, appropriate distribution of the benefits as well as responsibilities such as repairs and maintenance is essential. Such meticulous division of labor ensured the sustainable utilization of fish weirs.

3-4. The Origin of Fish Weirs in Penghu  
According to “The Classic of Poetry,” fishing techniques in ancient China included netting, angling, using bamboo-woven cages, diving, and building weirs. 

In the Han dynasty, fishing entrapment such as “bamboo curtains” were developed to catch fishes. In the Eastern Jin dynasty, fishermen created “lu,” a fishing method of setting bamboo gates by the sea and using tides to catch fish at Songjiang estuary. The “lu” fishing method was called “hu (weir)” in Shanghai.

In the Tang dynasty, “hu (weir)” became one of the main fish-catching methods in the downstream region of Yangtze River. As the method spread, variations of the “hu (weir)” was also used in other regions. The method was also given different names when it was adopted for other purposes. For instance, “crab duan” refers to the weir for catching crabs and “fish duan” refers to the bamboo fence for catching fish. 

In the early Ming dynasty, the imperial court banned all maritime activities. By the Qing dynasty, the ban became even stricter because of the growing threat posed by Japanese pirates. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the imperial court gave orders for The Great Clearance, which relegated all offshore islands as restricted areas. 

All island residents were relocated under the threat of death and all human constructions were destroyed. Therefore, the exact time and location of the first stone fish weir built in Penghu may never be found because no records are available after so many years.

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Criterion I:
By “using the sea as farmland,” early settlers on Penghu were able to survive by fishing expeditions. However, when the winter came, strong northeast monsoons made it too dangerous for ships to sail. To stay alive, these fishermen used black basalt and white coral reefs to construct stone weirs, trapping fish by using the tidal range and omitting the danger of going out to sea. 

This alternative way of catching fish without endangering their lives was the culmination of local wisdom, representing a masterpiece of human creative genius and meeting the first criterion of UNESCO’s world heritage register. 

Criterion V:
As manmade stone constructions placed in shallow waters, stone weirs are exposed to the forces of nature such as gales and waves. Regular maintenance is required to keep weirs operational. 

However, bythe 1970s, gains from other fishing practices had rapidly increased, eclipsing the yield of fish weirs. Penghu fishermen have since lost interest in maintaining such stone fish weirs. 

Human destruction of the maritime environment has further exacerbated the conditions of the remaining fish weirs. Many weirs are plagued by sedimentation, and some are almost completely inundated by sand. The old landscape of Penghu cannot be restored, thereby meeting the fifth criterion. 

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5-1. Future Prospects

The development of science and technology and changes in both the environment and population structure have often led to the gradual decline or even disappearance of some traditional industries that were closely related to a past way of life. The stone fish weir culture is a typical example of such decline.

Although stone fish weirs were widely spread across the Penghu Islands, the demand for fish rose with the growth of the population. The traditional method gradually fell in disuse, overtaken by the development of mechanical power and advanced fishing equipment.

Today, stone fish weirs are in a serious decline across the world after their functions were replaced by mechanized fishing. The development of recreational water facilities along coastal areas have also reduced the space for housing stone weirs.

Only a handful of less-developed countries rely on stone weirs for harvesting food. The remaining weirs around the world have lost their functional purposes, serving only as educational props or tourist sites.

Penghu is one of the few regions in the world that still upholds the culture of fish weirs. In today’s technology-oriented society, the stone fish weir culture in Penghu is a “living fossil” reminding contemporary people of the prehistoric way of life and Taiwan’s fishing history. 

Therefore, both the public and private sector have devoted resources toward promoting and researching stone fish weirs. Starting in 2005, the Penghu National Scenic Area Administration, Penghu County Government, and the National Penghu University of Science and Technology have sponsored a series of cultural events, including:

• 2005 Penghu Stone Fish Weir Cultural Festival
• 5th Symposium on Penghu Studies – Weirs and Fishery
• 2006 Penghu Jibei Stone Fish Weir Culture Camp
• 2007 Penghu Stone Fish Weir Festival
• 2008 Farmland in the Sea – Wisdom of Ancestors in the Stone Fish Weir
• 2009 National Science Council 50 Journey of Science: Exploring the Wisdom of Ancient Fishery – Penghu Stone Fish Weir Tour

Such events have helped to raise public awareness of stone fish weirs both at home and abroad. The Ministry of Culture is also supporting the maintenance of stone fish weirs on Jibei Island and taking steps to preserve the special fishing technique.

Since 2005, the National Science Council has also supported Li Ming-ru, associate professor at the Department of Tourism and Leisure of the National Penghu University of Science and Technology, in an archive project for digitally preserving records on stone fish weirs. Taiwanese scholars have also published related research papers, invigorating the field of fish weir studies.

In 2007, the Twin Hearts Stone Weir at Cimei was registered by the Penghu County Government as a cultural landscape in accordance to the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act. The weirs of Jibei Islet were also registered as a cultural landscape in the following year.

In 1999, the Culture Affairs Bureau of Penghu County Government published “Stone Fish Weirs in Penghu,” a book written by local cultural expert Hung Kuo-hsiung. Ten years later, the bureau published a book titled “The Origin and Distribution of Penghu Weirs – Exploring a Cross-national Perspective” by Li Ming-ru. The publications reflect the local government’s determination in preserving the stone fish weir culture.

The Council for Cultural Affairs, predecessor of the Ministry of Culture, then listed the Penghu Stone Fish Weirs as one of Taiwan’s 18 potential World Heritage Sites in 2009.

Concrete actions and sustainable measures have been taken to preserve the remaining stone fish weirs in Penghu. Although the roads towards cultural preservation is never ending, the Penghu Stone Fish Weirs heritage site is now one step closer to potential inclusion by UNESCO’s World Heritage register.